Margaret Mead was a prominent cultural anthropologist who, among other things, traveled to and studied seven cultures in the South Pacific and Indonesia between 1925 and 1939. You may be surprised— I certainly was— to find that some of the questions she explored there are very similar to the ones we are grappling with in this Substack. Her work on gender consciousness and questions like “how much of gendered behavior is biologically determined?” are summarized below. Future posts will excerpt some of her work in the public domain.
Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies
In her book Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies published in 1935, Mead concluded that the roles and behaviors typically associated with men and women were not universal but instead varied greatly across different cultures. For example, she found that in some societies, what we might consider masculine traits—such as aggression —were actually exhibited more by women, while in others, the opposite was true.
Mead studied three cultures in the Pacific region: the Arapesh, the Mundugumor, and the Tchambuli, all of which are/were located in what is now Papua New Guinea. Here are short summaries of her research:1
Arapesh: Mead described the Arapesh as a gentle and nurturing society where both men and women exhibited what might be considered traditionally feminine traits by Western standards. Both sexes were cooperative, non-competitive, and focused on caregiving roles.
Mundugumor: In contrast, the Mundugumor were described as aggressive and competitive, traits typically associated with masculinity in Western cultures. Mead noted that both men and women in this society exhibited these aggressive tendencies and there was little distinction in gender roles concerning aggression.
Tchambuli: This group, according to Mead's observations, had more fluid gender roles compared to Western norms. Women held economic and political power, while men were more focused on aesthetic pursuits and personal adornment. This reversal of gender roles challenged the Western notion of a universal male dominance.2
Through her comparative study of these three cultures, Mead found that gender roles and behaviors are not fixed or biologically determined but are instead shaped by cultural norms and expectations. Her work was groundbreaking in challenging the idea of a universal, biologically-based human nature and highlighting the diversity of gender roles across different societies.
Male and Female: The Classic Study of the Sexes
Male and Female: The Classic Study of the Sexes, first published in 1949, is one of Margaret Mead's most influential works. In this book, Mead explored the ways in which gender roles and expectations are constructed and shaped by culture rather than being determined solely by biology. Building on her previous work, the central thesis of the book is that gendered behaviors are not fixed or innate but are instead learned and influenced by cultural norms and socialization processes.
Furthermore, Mead contended that societal changes, such as advancements in technology, shifts in economic systems, and changes in family structures, can lead to changes in gender roles and behaviors over time. She challenged the notion of a static and unchanging concept of masculinity and femininity, instead advocating for a more nuanced, flexible and dynamic understanding of gender.
In the book, Mead drew upon her extensive fieldwork experiences across various cultures to illustrate her arguments about gender and its cultural variability. Male and Female doesn't focus on specific cultures in the same way that Sex and Temperament does. Instead, it incorporated insights from her studies in numerous societies to support her thesis, including those she encountered during her fieldwork in Samoa, New Guinea, Bali, Manus, and other Pacific Island societies. She also included examples from Western societies, particularly the United States, to illustrate contrasts and similarities in gender roles and expectations.
In both books, Mead's broad comparative approach allowed her to examine the ways in which gender roles are constructed and maintained across a range of cultural contexts, from small-scale societies to complex industrialized nations. Through this comparative lens, she highlighted the diversity of gender roles and challenged the notion of fixed and universal gender norms. While, affirming that there are biological sex differences between males and females, she asked “Do real differences exist, in addition to the obvious anatomical and physical ones—but just as biologically based?”
Some criticize Mead’s work claiming that she drew conclusions from her research too broadly. Researchers can consult her preserved research notes and other raw materials and have done so for their own interpretations. Margaret Mead: Human Nature and the Power of Culture, Library of Congress Exhibition, 2001.
In future posts, excerpts of Sex and Temperament will provide more details and nuance about these three peoples.
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